![]() Destruction of Native American Cultures: AMERICAN INDIANS or NATIVE AMERICANS. Various Authors. Edited By: R. The International History Project.Biography of a Chief Have students research a Native American leader and then write a biography of the leader, appropriate for a reader in third or fourth grade. HUD's Office of Native American Programs (ONAP) administers housing and community development programs that benefit American Indian and Alaska Native tribal. Native American Netroots a forum for the discussion of political, social and economic issues affecting the indigenous peoples of the United States, including their. Absentee-Shawnee Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma Native Americans facts, information, pictures. ORIGINSCULTURE AREASINDIAN- EUROPEAN RELATIONSLEGISLATIONBIBLIOGRAPHYThough referring properly to anyone born in America, the term Native Americans has referred to American indigenous peoples since the eighteenth century. Its use became popular in the 1. Columbian peoples. The choice to use Native American rather than Indian, the term Christopher Columbus (1. United States, remains a matter of political debate in some indigenous communities. Aboriginal peoples of the Americas is more accurate, but unfamiliar. Further, it does not, strictly speaking, refer to Arctic peoples, sometimes known as Eskimo, Inuit, and other names pertaining to particular geographic groups, since the ancestors of these peoples arrived millennia after the ancestors of the people known as Indians. Indigenous has been criticized on the grounds that it means “originating in,” and all human beings originated in the Old World. Native American finds wide usage only in the United States, and for this reason this entry focuses on the United States. Moreover, Native American usually does not include aboriginal Alaskans, widely and officially known as Alaska Natives. Canadians usually use the term First Nations Peoples (French: premi. In Latin America, the terms indigenous peoples (Spanish: pueblos ind. There, the term pre- Columbian peoples (Spanish: pueblos precolumbinos ; Portuguese: povos pr. Most autonyms simply mean “(the) people.”Archaeological data suggest that the first people probably arrived in North America from Asia approximately 1. Numerous physical features are common to American Indians and East Asians, and unknown or unusual among Europeans and Africans: a brachycephalic (relatively wide) skull; Mongoloid spot (a greenish- blue birthmark above the coccyx which disappears within a few years); shovel- shaped incisors; dark, coarse, straight hair; little body hair; dry earwax; and others. Prehistory The ancestors of modern American Indians spread out over the Americas rapidly. About 1. 1,2. 00 to 1. Clovis point and played an important role in the extinction of many animal species, including mammoths, mastodons, giant sloths, horses, and several species of camel. The Ice Age ended 1. Paleolithic life of large- game hunting. Neolithic peoples hunted smaller animals and gathered wild plant foods. One exception includes the Maritime Archaic peoples in the extreme Northeast, who subsisted on deep- sea fish. With the exception of the alpaca, vicu. Beans, squash, and most importantly maize for the energy it supplies were all domesticated in Central America before 7,0. Maize probably originated from selective breeding of a grass called teosinte. Maize first arrived in the southwestern United States around 3,5. Around 1,3. 00 years ago, a new variety called northern flint or maiz de ocho appeared, and with its larger kernels and much shorter growing season it spread throughout eastern North America, occasionally as far north as southern Canada. Cultures The cultures and societies of the original peoples of North America represent an astonishing range of diversity. While some lived in a city of tens of thousands (Cahokia, in present- day Illinois), others living in parts of the Great Basin and subarctic regions never met more than two hundred people their entire lives. People who adopted maize tended to become sedentary and developed food surpluses, concentrations of wealth and political power, and larger, denser populations. In North America, maize production frequently correlates with matrilineality and matrilocal residence, whereas primary dependence on hunting often correlates with patrilineality and patrilocal residence. When maize first arrived in an area, women probably cultivated it, since women already gathered plant foods while men hunted. As maize became more important in the diet over time, women’s increasing contribution to the economy brought them greater political power and the most valuable types of property, in some cases including the society’s political offices, often descended from mother to daughter. Even where men later ended up doing most or all of the farming, matrilineal social structure and inheritance often remained. An example of this latter case is the Hopi, arguably the most matrilineal people on earth—so much so that what we think of as “normal” sex roles are sometimes reversed: men traditionally wove and women did most of the house construction. The Crow, once matrilineal farmers, later moved out onto the plains, where men provided most of the food through bison hunting. Crow men after a time began to argue for patrilineal social structure. Some two hundred to five hundred different languages were spoken in North America, and there were at least sixty- two language families and isolates. While immense differences exist between the various languages of North America, they all share the characteristics of polysynthesis and agglutination, meaning that they can bring together subject, object, verb, tense, adjective, adverb, mood, and so on in one word. For example, the Micmac word ketulmieyap means “I wanted to go home.”It has long been recognized that peoples in various parts of North America share more cultural similarities with peoples of the same geographic area than with peoples of other geographic areas. Although controversy persists in identifying exact culture area boundaries, one can say much about the general locations of these areas and the general characteristics of the peoples inhabiting each area. California Most California peoples subsisted on fish and game, but especially on acorns, an abundant food that made them, like the peoples of the Northwest Coast, capable of sedentary life in permanent villages, and thus nearly unique among all hunting- and- gathering peoples. Here, great wealth meant concentrations of both wealth and power, and peoples such as the Yurok developed a sharply defined nobility. Yurok pegerks owned great wealth, especially money, heirlooms, and even prehistoric antiquities. They lived at named elevated locations, served as priests and judges, wore distinctive clothing, ate foreign foods, employed aides, gave gifts and feasts at ceremonies, spoke foreign languages, traveled extensively, and used ornate speech. Most societies have moieties, and some have ambilateral social structure in which each individual had the choice to join the father’s group or the mother’s group; often individuals chose the group with the most resources. Some southern California people also raised maize, beans, and squash. Great Basin This intermontane region of Nevada, Utah, and adjoining areas was home to some of the most mobile and dispersed populations of hunters and gatherers in the world. Due to the difficulty of survival, which affected all parts of life, bands were small, often the size of a nuclear family, with fluid membership, and kinship was largely bilateral with little or no emphasis on lineages, which would confer no benefits to such dispersed people. People hunted and collected seeds and roots. Because of the rigorous conditions and sexual division of labor, marriage was essential to survival; people married early, and they married people living at a distance to create kinship links over a wider area. In some places, the sororate and levirate were legally required and both polygyny and polyandry were practiced. Warfare was almost unknown, cooperation was so essential for survival. In places, giving birth to twins was considered unlucky—in a few places, one of the pair was killed. Northeast From Maine to Wisconsin and south to Virginia and Kentucky, people depended partially on maize, beans, and squash, which the Iroquois named “the three sisters,” but also upon hunting, gathering, and fishing. As swidden horticulturalists, people had to move their villages every decade or so as soil lost fertility, weeds encroached, and firewood and game became scarce. The Iroquoisian peoples are matrilineal; elsewhere social organization is patrilineal. Warfare for the purpose of revenge occurred frequently, and villages were often palisaded. Northwest Coast The coastal region of Oregon to southern Alaska has some of the most distinctive cultures in the world. These people traditionally subsisted on the immensely abundant salmon, making them the wealthiest in North America and leading them to build permanent villages. Their cultures reflected this: fine arts and theater were developed, people (slaves) were considered a measure of wealth, and the rich gave lavish feasts known as potlatches, which because of the wealth acquired through trade with Europeans, grew to titanic proportions in the nineteenth century, involving the giving away and destruction of what would be millions of dollars in today’s money. Warfare, including raiding for slaves, was common, and many villages were palisaded. Many groups had an elaborate system for ranking individuals, and for those in high positions, marriage to someone of equal rank was the only possibility. Both men and women were wealthy, owning various types of corporeal and incorporeal property, which was inherited both matrilineally and patrilineally. Plains The Plains consists of two smaller areas, the high plains (short- grass prairie) to the west of the hundredth meridian where mobile people hunted, and the prairie- plains (tall- grass prairie) to the east where people lived as horticulturalists and hunters. Though many associate the High Plains culture with that of North American Indians generally, High Plains culture is unique in most respects in North America. What we have come to know as High Plains culture did not exist until recent times, because few people could manage to live on the high plains: the region is dry, inhospitable to agriculture without a steel plow, and the prolific denizen of the plains, the bison, was very difficult to find and kill reliably. College Opportunities for Native American Students. Do You Qualify for Tribal Funds? Native Americans and Native Alaskans have been historically under- represented in the halls of higher education. Fortunately, the years of prejudice and exclusion are coming to an end. Today, there is a national imperative to encourage and support all minorities, including Native Americans and Native Alaskans, to pursue a college education. There are a few general scholarships available that provide funding to undergraduate students without a declared major. This can be a time consuming process, but it is an absolute requirement for all scholarships dedicated to Native American students. Proving your Native American ancestry should begin with birth certificates and family records. You will also need to contact your tribal elders to trace your family’s history within the tribe. You should also consult the Dawes Rolls, which are United States census documents prepared during the American Indian relocation of the late 1. These census documents are a comprehensive listing of the people recognized by the Dawes Commission as members of the Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, Chickasaw and Seminole tribes. The following resources should be used to trace your American Indian ancestry: Once you have gathered all of the necessary documentation that proves a direct line of Native American descent, you will need to apply to the Federal Bureau of Indian Affairs for a Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood. With your CDIB in hand, it is time to begin your search for scholarship programs dedicated to the needs of Native American students. Federal Programs for Native Americans. Any search for college funding should begin with the Federal government. The White House Initiative on Tribal Colleges and Universities was created by executive order to improve education opportunities for Native Americans. The WHITCU provides detailed information on all 3. Tribal run colleges and universities in the United States. The WHITCU also works with the Bureau of Indian Education to administer a variety of scholarships, grants and fellowships dedicated to the needs of college- bound Native American students. The following scholarships are offered through the Bureau of Indian Education. The BIE Higher Education Grant/Scholarship Program – This program offers financial assistance to college- bound students who are members of a Federally recognized Tribe. Students must be enrolled in an accredited college or university, and must be working towards an Associate’s or Bachelor’s degree. Award amounts vary, and are determined on the basis of financial need. The Indian Health Service Scholarship – Three different levels of scholarships are available for Native American and Native Alaskan students pursuing degrees and careers in the healthcare industry. The three IHS Scholarships include the Preparatory Scholarship, the Pre- Graduate Scholarship and the Health Professions Scholarship. These state supported programs offer valuable financial assistance to Native American students who may be struggling to meet the rising costs of college tuition. Some state- based Native American scholarships will be targeted to students pursuing degrees in certain critical need fields, such as healthcare, education and law. The availability of these scholarships and grants will vary greatly depending on the state and the size of its Native American population. Interested parties should contact their state’s Department of Higher Education for details on any financial aid programs which may be available to Native American or Native Alaskan students. The following examples are typical of the types of scholarships that are available to Native American students at the state and local level. The North Dakota University System offers the North Dakota Indian Scholarship. Award amounts range from $8. The Illinois Student Assistance Commission offers the Minority Teachers of Illinois Scholarship. The maximum award amount is $5. Minnesota’s Office of Higher Education offers the Minnesota Indian Scholarship for undergraduate and graduate students of Native American ancestry. Awards are determined on the basis of financial need. American Indians and Alaskan Natives have been historically under- represented in many professional fields. Through scholarships and grant programs corporations and professional organizations are working to diversify the country’s professional workforce, and to encourage more Native Americans to pursue careers in science and industry. These programs offer valuable opportunities to Native American and Native Alaskan students pursuing their educational and professional ambitions. Native American students searching for scholarships from the private sector should look for programs sponsored by businesses and associations closely allied to their field of interest. For example, a student of Cherokee ancestry who is interested in computer science will want to look for Native American scholarships supported by software companies, computer engineering firms, and professional associations of computer specialists. The following examples should better illustrate the types of scholarship programs offered by the private sector for students of Native American descent. The Gates Millennium Scholars Fund is made possible by a generous donation from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Students must be nominated for the award by a principle, teacher, or guidance counselor. Award are determined on the basis of financial need, course of study, and total cost of tuition. The Ford Motor Company Tribal Scholars Program offers $5. Native American students pursuing degrees in mathematics, science, business or education. Final award determination is made on the basis of financial need. The National Society of Professional Engineers administers the Maureen L. Blitman, P. E., Scholarship to Promote Diversity in Engineering. The award is $5. 00. The Society for American Archaeology administers their own Native American Scholarship Fund. The SAA offers four annual scholarships, including the Arthur C. Parker Scholarship, the NSF Scholarship for Archaeological Training, the Native American Undergraduate Archaeology Scholarship, and the Native American Graduate Archaeology Scholarship. Award amounts range from $4. Scholarships from Tribes and Advocacy Groups. Finally, Native American and Native Alaskan students should investigate those scholarship opportunities funded and supported by individual Tribal Nations. Many tribes support their own scholarship funds, and offer financial aid to deserving members. Students should also consider programs supported by charitable foundations and advocacy groups that are dedicated to the needs and welfare of the American Indian population. Again, like many of the scholarships available from the private sector, financial aid programs supported by the Tribal Nations and by Indian advocacy groups are often subject- specific and are designed to encourage Native American students to pursue degrees and careers in specific fields. The following few examples should give students an idea of the types of scholarship programs offered by individual tribes, and by charitable foundations. Native Americans and Native Alaskans have access to an impressive array of financial aid opportunities designed to help them pursue their college and professional ambitions. Though their history within the United States has often been troubled, and the path difficult, new and enlightened attitudes have paved the way for increased understanding and improved opportunities. With the right scholarship, Native American students can now achieve their goals of a first class education and a bright and productive future. Native American and Native Alaskan students will also want to refer to our section on Grants for Native American Students.
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